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CHAP08.TXT
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
WHAT IS A POINTER?
Simply stated, a pointer is an address. Instead of
being a variable, it is a pointer to a variable stored
somewhere in the address space of the program. It is always
best to use an example so load the file named POINTER.C and
display it on your monitor for an example of a program with
some pointers in it.
For the moment, ignore the data declaration statement
where we define "index" and two other fields beginning with
a star. It is properly called an asterisk, but for reasons
we will see later, let's agree to call it a star. If you
observe the first statement, it should be clear that we
assign the value of 39 to the variable "index". This is no
surprise, we have been doing it for several programs now.
The next statement however, says to assign to "pt1" a
strange looking value, namely the variable "index" with an
ampersand in front of it. In this example, pt1 and pt2 are
pointers, and the variable "index" is a simple variable.
Now we have a problem. We need to learn how to use pointers
in a program, but to do so requires that first we define the
means of using the pointers in the program.
The following two rules will be somewhat confusing to
you at first but we need to state the definitions before we
can use them. Take your time, and the whole thing will
clear up very quickly.
TWO VERY IMPORTANT RULES
The following two rules are very important when using
pointers and must be thoroughly understood.
1. A variable name with an ampersand in front of it defines
the address of the variable and therefore points to the
variable. You can therefore read line six as "pt1 is
assigned the value of the address of index".
2. A pointer with a "star" in front of it refers to the
value of the variable pointed to by the pointer. Line
nine of the program can be read as "The stored (starred)
value to which the pointer "pt1" points is assigned the
value 13". Now you can see why it is convenient to
think of the asterisk as a star, it sort of sounds like
the word store.
MEMORY AIDS
1. Think of & as an address.
2. Think of * as a star referring to stored.
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
Assume for the moment that "pt1" and "pt2" are pointers
(we will see how to define them shortly). As pointers, they
do not contain a variable value but an address of a variable
and can be used to point to a variable. Line six of the
program assigns the pointer "pt1" to point to the variable
we have already defined as "index" because we have assigned
the address of "index" to "pt1". Since we have a pointer to
"index", we can manipulate the value of "index" by using
either the variable name itself, or the pointer.
Line nine modifies the value by using the pointer.
Since the pointer "pt1" points to the variable "index", then
putting a star in front of the pointer name refers to the
memory location to which it is pointing. Line nine
therefore assigns to "index" the value of 13. Anyplace in
the program where it is permissible to use the variable name
"index", it is also permissible to use the name "*pt1" since
they are identical in meaning until the pointer is
reassigned to some other variable.
ANOTHER POINTER
Just to add a little intrigue to the system, we have
another pointer defined in this program, "pt2". Since
"pt2" has not been assigned a value prior to statement
seven, it doesn't point to anything, it contains garbage.
Of course, that is also true of any variable until a value
is assigned to it. Statement seven assigns "pt2" the same
address as "pt1", so that now "pt2" also points to the
variable "index". So to continue the definition from the
last paragraph, anyplace in the program where it is
permissible to use the variable "index", it is also
permissible to use the name "*pt2" because they are
identical in meaning. This fact is illustrated in the first
"printf" statement since this statement uses the three means
of identifying the same variable to print out the same
variable three times.
THERE IS ONLY ONE VARIABLE
Note carefully that, even though it appears that there
are three variables, there is really only one variable. The
two pointers point to the single variable. This is
illustrated in the next statement which assigns the value of
13 to the variable "index", because that is where the
pointer "pt1" is pointing. The next "printf" statement
causes the new value of 13 to be printed out three times.
Keep in mind that there is really only one variable to be
changed, not three.
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
This is admittedly a very difficult concept, but since
it is used extensively in all but the most trivial C
programs, it is well worth your time to stay with this
material until you understand it thoroughly.
HOW DO YOU DECLARE A POINTER?
Now to keep a promise and tell you how to declare a
pointer. Refer to the third line of the program and you
will see our old familiar way of defining the variable
"index", followed by two more definitions. The second
definition can be read as "the storage location to which
"pt1" points will be an int type variable". Therefore,
"pt1" is a pointer to an int type variable. Likewise, "pt2"
is another pointer to an int type variable.
A pointer must be defined to point to some type of
variable. Following a proper definition, it cannot be used
to point to any other type of variable or it will result in
a "type incompatibility" error. In the same manner that a
"float" type of variable cannot be added to an "int" type
variable, a pointer to a "float" variable cannot be used to
point to an integer variable.
Compile and run this program and observe that there is
only one variable and the single statement in line 9 changes
the one variable which is displayed three times.
THE SECOND PROGRAM WITH POINTERS
In these few pages so far on pointers, we have covered
a lot of territory, but it is important territory. We still
have a lot of material to cover so stay in tune as we
continue this important aspect of C. Load the next file
named POINTER2.C and display it on your monitor so we can
continue our study.
In this program we have defined several variables and
two pointers. The first pointer named "there" is a pointer
to a "char" type variable and the second named "pt" points
to an "int" type variable. Notice also that we have defined
two array variables named "strg" and "list". We will use
them to show the correspondence between pointers and array
names.
A STRING VARIABLE IS ACTUALLY A POINTER
In the programming language C, a string variable is
defined to be simply a pointer to the beginning of a string.
This will take some explaining. Refer to the example
program on your monitor. You will notice that first we
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
assign a string constant to the string variable named "strg"
so we will have some data to work with. Next, we assign the
value of the first element to the variable "one", a simple
"char" variable. Next, since the string name is a pointer
by definition of the C language, we can assign the same
value to "two" by using the star and the string name. The
result of the two assignments are such that "one" now has
the same value as "two", and both contain the character "T",
the first character in the string. Note that it would be
incorrect to write the ninth line as "two = *strg[0];"
because the star takes the place of the square brackets.
For all practical purposes, "strg" is a pointer. It
does, however, have one restriction that a true pointer does
not have. It cannot be changed like a variable, but must
always contain the initial value and therefore always points
to its string. It could be thought of as a pointer
constant, and in some applications you may desire a pointer
that cannot be corrupted in any way. Even though it cannot
be changed, it can be used to refer to other values than the
one it is defined to point to, as we will see in the next
section of the program.
Moving ahead to line 12, the variable "one" is assigned
the value of the ninth variable (since the indexing starts
at zero) and "two" is assigned the same value because we are
allowed to index a pointer to get to values farther ahead in
the string. Both variables now contain the character "a".
The C programming language takes care of indexing for us
automatically by adjusting the indexing for the type of
variable the pointer is pointing to. In this case, the
index of 8 is simply added to the pointer value before
looking up the desired result because a "char" type variable
is one byte long. If we were using a pointer to an "int"
type variable, the index would be doubled and added to the
pointer before looking up the value because an "int" type
variable uses two bytes per value stored. When we get to
the chapter on structures, we will see that a variable can
have many, even into the hundreds or thousands, of
characters per variable, but the indexing will be handled
automatically for us by the system.
Since "there" is already a pointer, it can be assigned
the value of the eleventh element of "strg" by the statement
in line 16 of the program. Remember that since "there" is a
true pointer, it can be assigned any value as long as that
value represents a "char" type of address. It should be
clear that the pointers must be "typed" in order to allow
the pointer arithmetic described in the last paragraph to be
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
done properly. The third and fourth outputs will be the
same, namely the letter "c".
POINTER ARITHMETIC
Not all forms of arithmetic are permissible on a
pointer. Only those things that make sense, considering
that a pointer is an address somewhere in the computer. It
would make sense to add a constant to an address, thereby
moving it ahead in memory that number of places. Likewise,
subtraction is permissible, moving it back some number of
locations. Adding two pointers together would not make
sense because absolute memory addresses are not additive.
Pointer multiplication is also not allowed, as that would be
a funny number. If you think about what you are actually
doing, it will make sense to you what is allowed, and what
is not.
NOW FOR AN INTEGER POINTER
The array named "list" is assigned a series of values
from 100 to 199 in order to have some data to work with.
Next we assign the pointer "pt" the value of the 28th
element of the list and print out the same value both ways
to illustrate that the system truly will adjust the index
for the "int" type variable. You should spend some time in
this program until you feel you fairly well understand these
lessons on pointers.
Compile and run POINTER2.C and study the output.
You may recall that back in the lesson on functions we
mentioned that there were two ways to get variable data back
from a function. One way is through use of the array, and
you should be right on the verge of guessing the other way.
If your guess is through use of a pointer, you are correct.
Load and display the program named TWOWAY.C for an example
of this.
FUNCTION DATA RETURN WITH A POINTER
In TWOWAY.C, there are two variables defined in the
main program "pecans" and "apples". Notice that neither of
these is defined as a pointer. We assign values to both of
these and print them out, then call the function "fixup"
taking with us both of these values. The variable "pecans"
is simply sent to the function, but the address of the
variable "apples" is sent to the function. Now we have a
problem. The two arguments are not the same, the second is
a pointer to a variable. We must somehow alert the function
to the fact that it is supposed to receive an integer
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
variable and a pointer to an integer variable. This turns
out to be very simple. Notice that the parameter
definitions in the function define "nuts" as an integer, and
"fruit" as a pointer to an integer. The call in the main
program therefore is now in agreement with the function
heading and the program interface will work just fine.
In the body of the function, we print the two values
sent to the function, then modify them and print the new
values out. This should be perfectly clear to you by now.
The surprise occurs when we return to the main program and
print out the two values again. We will find that the value
of pecans will be restored to its value before the function
call because the C language makes a copy of the item in
question and takes the copy to the called function, leaving
the original intact. In the case of the variable "apples",
we made a copy of a pointer to the variable and took the
copy of the pointer to the function. Since we had a pointer
to the original variable, even though the pointer was a
copy, we had access to the original variable and could
change it in the function. When we returned to the main
program, we found a changed value in "apples" when we
printed it out.
By using a pointer in a function call, we can have
access to the data in the function and change it in such a
way that when we return to the calling program, we have a
changed value of data. It must be pointed out however,
that if you modify the value of the pointer itself in the
function, you will have a restored pointer when you return
because the pointer you use in the function is a copy of the
original. In this example, there was no pointer in the main
program because we simply sent the address to the function,
but in many programs you will use pointers in function
calls. One of the places you will find need for pointers in
function calls will be when you request data input using
standard input/output routines. These will be covered in
the next two chapters.
Compile and run TWOWAY.C and observe the output.
POINTERS ARE VALUABLE
Even though you are probably somewhat intimidated at
this point by the use of pointers, you will find that after
you gain experience, you will use them profusely in many
ways. You will also use pointers in every program you write
other than the most trivial because they are so useful. You
should probably go over this material carefully several
times until you feel comfortable with it because it is very
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Chapter 8 - Pointers
important in the area of input/output which is next on the
agenda.
PROGRAMMING EXERCISES
1. Define a character array and use "strcpy" to copy a
string into it. Print the string out by using a loop
with a pointer to print out one character at a time.
Initialize the pointer to the first element and use the
double plus sign to increment the pointer. Use a
separate integer variable to count the characters to
print.
2. Modify the program to print out the string backwards by
pointing to the end and using a decrementing pointer.
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